2019-2 Digital Sustainability.fex

Digital Sustainability
===

introduction:
	high prices need scarcity, which needs rivalry
	logins:
		provide personalization & privacy for user
		make information like physical possession; get statistics about usage		
	difference physical / informational:
		both have an apple and exchange it -> both have one apple
		both have an idea and exchange it -> both have two ideas		
		physical:
			one original (no copies)
			one consumer
			denying others access is practical
		informational:
			identical copies
			many consumers
			denying others access is challenging
	characteristics of goods:
		excludable access (easy/difficult to deny others)
		consumption rivalness (diminish of value when others consume too)
		dimensions:
			easy/low like club goods (fire protection, cable TV)
			easy/high like private goods (cars, books)
			hard/low like public goods (sunset, peace, defence, knowledge/cultural)
			hard/high like common pool (library, environment)
	digitalization:
		applies to science, traditions, art, software, ...
		pre-digital area:
			costly production & distribution
			originals finite, scarce, of different quality
			needs risky investment which needs incentives to do it
		after digitalization:
			cheap production (computer) and distribution (internet)
			concept of original does not make sense
			less investment needed
			mostly only transaction cost (contacting sources/target)
	intellectual property rights (IPR):
		for knowledge scarcity
		exclude others from access/use by legal means (copyrights, patents, trademarks)
		assumption that no new knowledge without financial incentives & rewards	
		ethical position:
			"things that are not diminished when shared must be shared"
			how to use digital resources in our society?
		contribution positions:
			all alone:
				one genius alone did all the relevant work
				hence ensure protection & incentives for creator alone
			builds upon previous work:
				the innovation was only possible thanks to previous
				hence ensure access & information flow for all

scientific publishing:
	scholars publish articles in journals
	system of referencing (citations):
		to show other relevant previous work and how own work differs
		avoids repeating and allows to discover & build up on previous work (and not just re-do it)
		measure performance
	mechanism important:
		knowledge exchange
		reputation building (but not an incentive for quality)
	cycle:
		scientists write papers & applies for journal
		scientists peer-review (get reputation but no money)
		journal proof-reads / edits paper & aquires copyright
		journal publishes & sells subscriptions
	market:
		top journals can not be substituted (demand independent of supply)
		hence prices most likely much higher than cost
	industry:
		ca 8 firms control about 2/3 of the 7.3 billion dollar market
		while costs sinks (digitalization) demand stays constant (loyal readers)
		illegal downloading of papers if heftly punished
		sci-hub and library genesis as pirate alternatives
	Open Access:
		wants to change (remove) the industry behind scientific publishing
		make information / tools openly accessible for the public
		berlin declaration (2003):
			"mission of dissiminating knowledge is only complete if all have access"
			"openly accessible & compatible tools & content"
			1) users get free, irrevocable, worldwide right to access, copy, use, distribute, transmit and display
			2) complete version of work is deposited in online repository	
		implementation:
			free for readers
			author pays up-front
			contractural expiration of copyright
		implementation alternatives:
			golden (payed publishing as a service)
			green (can additionally publish on own website with some restrictions)
		examples:
			public library of science plos.org
			open science online courses foseropenscience.eu/courses
			open access journals doaj.org
		blockchain for science:
			can takle malfunctioning processes
			reward first mover (prove who was first)
			do peer reviews (protect against tampering)
			incentivise sharing earlier (prevent double work or late knowledge exchange)

property:
	property vs possession:
		possession is to have it physically, the stronger one wins
		property is a structure of law, rationale are effort & scarcity
	history:
		german law includes use & ownership of produced items
		roman law additionally includes abuse (can do anything you want with it)
	property forms:
		private property (owned by specific person)
		public property (owned by all, but maybe not payed by all)
		common property (usable by all with some limitations)

knowledge:
	what:
		data is a collection of data points
		information is the combination of data
		knowledge is the interpretation (biased by culture, education, ...) of information
	how:		
		needs tangible medium 
		artifact like books, articles
		facilities like libraries, repositories
		regulation happens on this level
	who:
		public domain:
			abstract space nobody owns
			unlimited acces, use without restrictions
			basis of cultural heritage (receips, traditions, literature)
			initiatives like gutenberg, cpdl, mutopiaproject allow upload/downlad of copyrightfree works
			in contrary enclosure (public goods declared private like wild west) 

tragedy of the commons:
	each rational separate actor benefits when overconsuming scarce resources
	everyone has the right to use, noone has the right to exclude others
	hence prone to overuse
	examples are forests, parks, high seas

tragedy of the anticommons:
	when commons is inverted
	everyone has right to exclude others, no one has the priviledge of exclusive use
	hence prone to underuse
	examples are software patents, copyright
	patents are legally binding even if not known to the offender, hence risky to use

case study netscape:
	94 mosaic netscape developed
	95 IPO during internet hype
	was defactor standard because free; mosaic got money with server software
	95 release of internet explorer 1.0
	microsoft abuses market power to force IE (bundled with windows)
	feature bloat, instabilities, incompatabilities, bugs
	IE does not respect standards, implements proprietary extensions
	98 netscape dies
	microsoft is sued, internet explorer usage explodes
	innovation ceased
	but dumped code to mozilla
	02 release of mozilla 1.0

intellectual property rights (IPR)
====

monopoly:
	"alone-seller", single provider of service/product
	hard to compete, substitute, enter market

IPR:
	knowledge has incentive problem (non-excludable, non-rival)
	grants exclusive (create incentive), time-bounded (avoids monopoly) rights
	incentive purpose:
		create incentive to investment in R&D
		but balance with optimal (hence public) ressource allocation 
		change temporal (how long) and spatial (how much) dimensions
	allocation purpose:
		efficient (reduce transaction costs)
		marketable (to get price the product is worth)
	implementations:
		copyright, patents, design rights, ...
	alternatives:
		culture flat rate (instead middle man taking cut)
		innovation prices (many prices already exist)
		trade secrets (but other cannot contribute)
		subsidies of the state
		competitions / hackatons
		altruism
		crowdfunding

copyright:
	protects original forms/expressions
	exclusive rights for the work
	history:
		1662 licensing act (only printin guilde can copy)
		1710 copyright 14 years
	grant rights:
		grants any rights in any forms
		grant license (permission to use without ownership)		
	neighbouring rights:
		database rights ("leistungsschutzrecht" EU)
		renting rights
		performers rights
	forms:
		co-creators (each author has veto rights)
		derivative works (ownership depending on contribution amount)
	exceptions:
		no need to pay if transaction cost higher than monetary value CITATION NEEDED
		fair use for education/criticism
	recent development:
		for public:
			public benefts from easy difficult-to-prevent distribution
			license to reduce transation costs & define CC / copyleft
		for author:
			extend copyright duration & rights
			prohibided to circumvent copyright protections
			development of digital rights management (DRM)
	motivations:
		utility (maximize net social welfare)
		labor (your worked for it)
		personality (human needs, self expression)
		social planning (justice)

patents:
	protects ideas/concepts
	exclusive rights for the listed claims
	history:
		1474 venetia "new, ingenious, useful device"
	preconditions:
		patentable (for example math excluded)
		novel (never seen before)
		non-obvious (US) / inventive step (EU)
		useful (US) / industrial application (EU)
	issues:
		block competition (expensive prosecutions)
		races (around hype technologies)
		trolls (buy patents to sue others)
		thickets (many patents in same area)
		lots of applications (slow granting process)
		cumulative inventions:
			composed out of many previous work
			previous strongly protected work may prevent further because too similar
	solutions:
		pools (many owners act and use jointly)

patents vs copyright:
	both grant time-limited exclusive rights
	idea/concept vs expression
	application fee & reviewed vs free & immediate
	defined by work vs by fuzzy claims
	disclosed implicitly vs exlicitly
	unintentional infringement unlikely vs more likely
	monitoring costly vs cheap
	limitations for other creators big vs small
	transaction cost high vs lower	

IP architecture:
	WIPO:
		for wordwide IPR with treates
		can not publish defectors because part of UN
		grants copyright to software
		history:
			1886 copyright (bern convention)
			1883 patents (paris convention)
			1961 performers/producers (rome convention)
		internet:
			1996 copyright & performers/producers
			2000 patents (PCT)
			bit later EU & CH 
	WTO:
		for trade relations with TRIPS contracts 
		can punish members that do not uphold contract
		protects software like literary works
		allows to grant patents of any form
	EU:
		defines implementation with EPC (european patent convention)
		excludes discoveries, theories, math, aestetic creations, mental acts, playing games, doing business, computer programs, presentation of information
		but only if its referred as such 
		hence can reformulate abstract ideas to automata

software:
	source code is compiled to binary
	approaches:
		proprietary:
			bill gates is a market person, sees software as a product for profit
			only binary distributed with EULA describing how usage should be done
		free software:
			richard stallman is an societal activist, sees software as commons for freedom
			source code published with four freedoms
			free software as a social movement
		open source:
			linus torvalds is an engineer, sees software as tool for hobby
			full source code disclosed
			open source as a development methodology
			developed much later in internet 
	licenses:
		four freedoms:
			right granted to use/read/modify/distribute
		copyleft:
			"all rights reversed" or "share-alike" (as CC)
			published derivatives fall under GPL too
		vitality:
			if you combine with free software, you also need to use GPL
		examples:
			GPL/AGPL with copyleft & vitality
			LGPL/MPL with copyleft
			BSD/APL as permissive licenses
			public domain which removes copyright
			dual licensing with multiple licenses for different groups
	societal questions:
		who:
			mainly young, male, high education
		why:
			rewards (learning, solve own problems, low sharing cost, monetary reward)
			incentives (reciprocity, reputation, future career benefits, freedom)
			enjoyment (fun, coding as art, altruism, ego-boosting)
			obligation (sense of community, adherence to community norms, political like GPL, reputation)
			no skills/interest in sales/marketing
		how:
			project defining communcation, conflict resolution, release schedule
			collaborative work on repository
			communication over mailing lists, chats, meetings, conferences
			companies as part of the community

open source community:	
	characterization:
		user engagement (else no point in having project)
		transparent (developments, decision taking)
		collaboration (work together with diverse set of people)
		agility (adapting to changing environment)
		sustainability (keeping up pace for needed period of time)
		tools (wikis, bugtracker, versioning, email lists)
	management methodologies:
		cathedral (single contributor) vs bazaar (many contributors)
		dictator (single decisionmakers) vs meritocracy (many decide)
		examples:
			GNU emacs as cathedral, dictator
			Linux as bazaar, dictator
			HTTPD as bazaar, meritocracy
			apache OODT as cathedral, meritocracy
			ubuntu as in between
	governance design:
		choice of license (to only allow wanted behaviour)
		legal sanctions (to deal with misbehaviours)
		protect brand (with trademarks)
		legal setup (like a foundation)
		organisational (responsibilities, support, contribution process)

examples:
	openness:
		data/content:
			opendefinition to check what is open or not
			creativecommons which provides licenses
			projects include wikipedia, openclipart
		format/protocols:
			open communications protocols like http/ftp/...
			file formats like odt, ogg, png
			technical standards
	limitations:
		format/protocols may be proprietary
		technical standards:
			legal open but may lack technical details
			publicly available as royality free / RAND
			standards of organisation which must be bought (ISO, DIN, IEEE)

history of free software:
	1950 computers as big as a room with user manuals (software)
	1969 unbundling of hardware, software by IBM
	1975 microsoft, apple
	1984 GNU
	1989 copyright for software
	1992 openSuse, redhat, linux
	1995 IE with browser wars
	1998 haloween documents (microsoft identifies FOSS as major threat)
	2002 OpenOffice
	2007 java under GPL

open source usage:
	higher in software industry
	importance of factors (decreasing):
		security updates
		stability
		documentation
		support-guarantees
		compatability
		adjustments
		release planning
		knowledge
		support
		legal bindings
		trainings 

business models:
	distribution:
		provide packages (OS, security tools, ...) and schedule releases, delivery, support
		need expertise, community relations, developer access
		earn with dual licensing, proprietary additions, consulting, support
		examples are redRat, mySQL
	service provider:
		provide business process expertise, IT consulting, training
		need business knowhow, topic scouting, event management
		earn with support/training, consulting
		examples are accenture, ibm, CMS provides
	hardware:
		provide free/open hardware
		need to be able to build hardware
		earn with hardware, merchandise
		examples are fairphone, Edge, Vivaldi
	retail:
		provide specialized sales channel
		need sales experience
		earn with books, tutorials, merchandise 
		examples are oreilly

open source policy:
	policy:
		guideline, plan of action
		must not be adhered to, but will be tried to be followed
	arguments:
		cost (relative to GDP quite significant)
		data exchange (incompatabilities or inaccessibility)
		independence (reduce influence of other entities)
		education (others must be able to study others code)
		cultural diversity (remove restrictions to others)

distributed ledgers:
	multiple nodes agree on what transactions are included in log
	removes intermediary normally do the tasks
	forms are blockchains, directed ascyclic graph (DAG), hashgraphs
	blockchains:
		forms are smart contracts, currencies
		form of currencies are bitcoin, litecoin
	blockchain 2.0:
		transactions are code
		code execution is verified
		hence blockchain is now verified execution
	drawbacks:
		privacy:
			transaction are public; only addresses are not trivially known		
			-> privacy coins that try to encrypt DL
		decentralized:
			ripple has no open network ("permissioned"), bitcoin all in china 
	workings:
		create block from hash of previous block, transactions
		change nonce and hash itto get some non-invertible function (hash)

sustainability:
	aspects:
		intragenerational (for fellow citizens; but who decides)
		intergenerational (for our children; but who represents)
	definitions:
		by UN:
			sustainable development meets the need of the present
			without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
		strong sustainability:
			keep stock constant, consume only renewable part
			von den zinsen leben
		weak sustainability:
			assume resources can be substituted / are replaced in the future
			gamble with the future
		systemic view by Bundestag:
			use of self-regenerating system
			such that it preserves its properties
			and such that it can rebuild itself
		3-pillar view:
			ecological
			financial
			social
	resource focus:		
		physical:
			because finite, scarce, depletable
			trade using money or distribute using a fixed system
		digital:
			not so much discussed because immaterial and invisible

digital sustainability:
	if utility for society is maximized equally for present/future generations
	hence if minimum technical, legal, social restrictions
	digital resources are digital knowledge/cultural artifacts as text, image, audio, ...
	pillars:
		code (free / open source software)
		formats (open formats & protocols)
		data (open data such as research results)
		content (open content such as music, social networks, ...)
	renewable:
		accessible (anyone, forever, everything)
		and resuable (legally, technically, socially)
	systemic view:
		need to know what natural state of system are
		to be able to help them being preserved
	vs physical:
		physical can be depleted to be unavailable
		digital can be opened to be available

digital human rights:
	debate culture:
		re-frame old terms
		coin new terms
	definition power:
		social, cultural reality is created in discourse
		definition power have actors which dominate the discourse
		this agenda setting can influence debates
	digital divide:
		different definitions influence debate
		who (countries, communities)
		which (income, education, age)
		how (access, use, reuse)
	comunication rights:
		public sphere (freedom of expression, access to information, diversity of content)
		knowledge (knowledge-share regime, availability of knowledege)
		TODO slides
		civil (related to the processes of communication in society)
		cultural (communication of cultural information, for different cultures)
	openness:
		describes technical & legal to use/distribute digital content
		but terms used differently based on community