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<HTML>
<HEAD>
<META HTTP-EQUIV="Content-Type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
<META NAME="Author" CONTENT="Paul R. Sheppard">
<META NAME="GENERATOR" CONTENT="Mozilla/4.05 [en] (Win95; U) [Netscape]">
<TITLE>Crossdating in Dendrochronology</TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY TEXT="#000000" BGCOLOR="#C0C0C0" LINK="#0000EE" VLINK="#551A8B" ALINK="#FF0000">
<A NAME="crossdate_image"></A>
<DIV ALIGN="center">
<IMG SRC="http://tree.ltrr.arizona.edu/~martin/LTRR_images/mlk178fz.jpg" ALT="aternate to image">
</DIV>
<A NAME="crossdate_text"></A>
<CENTER><H1>Dendrochronological Crossdating by Skeleton Plotting</H1></CENTER>
Dendrochronology is the study of (<I>ology</I>) time (<I>chronos</I>),
or more specifically events in past time, using trees (<I>dendros</I>),
or more specifically the growth rings of trees. Applications in dendrochronology
include ecology (e.g., reconstruction and analysis of past fires or insect
outbreaks), climatology (e.g., reconstruction and analysis of past droughts
or cold periods), geology (e.g., reconstruction and analysis of past earthquakes
or volcanic eruptions), and anthropology (e.g., reconstruction and analysis
of past human behavior). A common objective of most dendrochronological
studies is to put the present in perspective of the past in order to better
understand current environmental processes and conditions. Virtually
all applications of dendrochronology require that the exact year of formation
of each growth ring be known, and therefore dendrochronologists do not
merely count rings to find out how old trees are. Rather, all rings
are dated to their exact year of formation by a process called crossdating,
which may also be described as pattern matching.
<P>Crossdating is the process of matching patterns of growth variation
through time across many trees. Trees living within a homogeneous
stand or forest often exhibit the same annual pattern of variation through
time because they all experience the same limiting factors on growth (typically
climate, but other factors can also affect growth). To crossdate
samples from many trees, dendrochronologists compare variation in ring
width across trees to temporally align the common pattern of variation.
Unfortunately, it can be difficult to compare ring-width patterns of two
or more specimens of actual wood because ring growth is often microscopic
and trees typically grow at differing rates. Thus, it's often difficult
to observe rings from many specimens at the same time in order to crossdate
them, i.e., match their patterns of variation. Accordingly, dendrochronologists
have developed a method called skeleton plotting whereby growth variation
of wood specimens is represented on standard graph paper and then multpiple
graph strips are compare instead of actual wood. The objective of
this web based presentation is to provide pertinent information about dendrochronological
crossdating by skeleton plotting and then provide users the opportunity
to actually try it by playing with a Java applet that realistically simulates
skeleton plotting and pattern matching.
<P>Users who are unaware of dendrochronology or inexperienced in crossdating
should read and understand the accompanying web pages listed below to understand
various concepts of tree growth, wood anatomy, dendrochronology, and crossdating;
experienced users may also wish to review these pages. Ultimately,
all users should try crossdating by skeleton plotting for yourselves.
Note that while the default settings of the applet create a reasonably
simple example problem, users may change various settings to make more
difficult--and fully realistic--crossdating problems. Once you have
a good understanding of crossdating and have succeeded at doing it with
the applet, please visit the web pages of Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research
at The University of Arizona to learn about research, teaching, and extension
opportunities in dendrochronology.
<P>Lastly, please take the time to give us feedback by filling in the evaluation
form. We constantly revise the applet and this set of explantory
pages in order to increase their teaching-learning performance. Your
feedback is an important part of this revision process.
<P><A NAME="treegrowth_image"></A>
<DIV ALIGN="center">
<IMG SRC="http://tree.ltrr.arizona.edu/~martin/LTRR_images/mlk178fz.jpg" ALT="aternate to image">
</DIV>
<A NAME="treegrowth_text"></A>
<CENTER><H1>Tree Growth, Sampling, and Growth Anomalies</H1></CENTER>
Trees try to apply a sheath-like cone of new wood each year over what existed
from the prior year. Thus, trees grow tall from the top (and from
the tips of their branches) and out from the bark. To dendrochronologically
sample a tree, pencil-thin increment cores are collected from near the
base of the tree and represent a single radius of growth. Cores are
collected using hollow increment borers that cause reasonably little harm
to the health of the tree. After proper storage (mounting into protective
holders) and preparation (sanding or planing the surface) of the sample,
the transverse or cross-sectional view of radial ring growth is visible.
The applet randomly generates a virtual; core of rings for skeleton plotting
and crossdating. Note that the virtual tree growth extends temporally
from left to right across the computer monitor.
<P>Occasionally, environmental conditions during a growing season are so
extreme (e.g., a drought) that a tree can not apply a full cone of growth
over all itself. Perhaps the tree can maintain leaf, root, and cambial
tissues during that year but not have enough additional photosynthetic
production to apply any new wood cellulose. In this case, there would
be no "annual" ring for that year, and this ring-growth anomaly is called
a "missing" or "absent" ring. It is not likely that every tree in
a homogeneous stand will miss the ring for that year, and therefore presumably
at least one of the dendrochronologically sampled trees in the stand will
have at least a narrow ring for that year. By matching growth patterns
across trees, missing rings can be discovered and accounted for, thus preserving
the true chronology of the tree growth. In the applet, the default
setting is not to allow for missing rings, but you may turn on that option
and restart a new core to try a harder crossdating problem that may include
any number of missing rings. If there is a missing ring, the virtual
core will show nothing for it; you will have to discover the missing ring
by crossdating your skeleton plot with the master chronology.
<P>Conversely, environmental conditions during a growing season are bimodal
(e.g., spring moisture from snow melt, then a dry period, then summer rains)
such that a tree applies two apparently full cones of growth over all itself.
In this case, there would be two "annual" rings for that year, and this
ring-growth anomaly is called a "false" or "intra-annual" ring. Although
the intra-annual false band often differs anatomically from the true ring
boundary enough so that it may be identified by it appearance, this is
not always the case. Again, it is not likely that every tree in a
homogeneous stand will have a false ring for that year, and therefore presumably
at least one of the dendrochronologically sampled trees in the stand will
have just one ring for that year. By matching growth patterns across
trees, false rings can be discovered and accounted for, thus preserving
the true chronology of the tree growth. In the applet, the default
setting is not to allow for false rings, but you may turn on that option
and restart a new core to try a harder crossdating problem that may include
one false ring. If there is a false ring, the virtual core will show
it as identical to its other intra-annual band; you will have to discover
the false ring by crossdating your skeleton plot with the master chronology.
<P>Note that even with these options turn on, your randomly generated virtual
core may not have a missing or false ring. By clicking the "Hint"
button, you can know if these growth anomalies exist in your current problem.
If they exist, then the answers to the problem will the calendar dates
of the missing rings and the ring numbers of the intra-annual bands, in
addition to the sample start and end years.
<P><A NAME="ringstructure_image"></A>
<DIV ALIGN="center">
<IMG SRC="http://tree.ltrr.arizona.edu/~martin/LTRR_images/mlk178fz.jpg" ALT="aternate to image">
</DIV>
<A NAME="ringstructure_text"></A>
<CENTER><H1>Conifer Ring Structure</H1></CENTER>
An important thing to understand is that each tree ring comes in two parts,
earlywood and latewood. As might be intuitively obvious, earlywood
is composed of cells generated during the early part of the growing season
while latewood is composed of cells formed during the late part of the
growing season. In conifer species (e.g., pines, firs, and many others),
earlywood is typically light in color while latewood is dark in color,
and thus each conifer ring has two distinct bands of color. The ring
and wood anatomy of hardwood species is more complicated.
<P>In the applet, rings are simulated as if they were from a conifer, i.e.,
each ring starts with a light earlywood (yellow) that is followed by a
dark latewood (brown). The color of latewood often varies in certain
conifer species (e.g., spruces), and the applet accordingly has three different
shades of latewood. Latewood color plays no other role in the applet
for now, but many dendrochronologists crossdate their collections based
on latewood color versus ring width in sites where ring width is complacent
but latewood color (true wood density) is sensitive.
<P>Note that in the applet the first ring is labeled with an "o" (the zeroth
ring), and every 10th visible ring is marked and labeled. You may
move the virtual core left and right by clicking and holding the left mouse
button over the core and then moving the mouse. To see some of the
very narrow rings, you may need to magnify the core series. To do
this, move the area of interest to the center of the applet space (a blue
line marked on the core mount) and click the core magnification setting
to either 2x or 3x.
<P>The default setting is for 61 rings (the final ring is number 60), but
you may change the number of rings to be just a few (as few as 11) to be
a lot (as much as 401) and restart a new crossdating problem. Keep
in mind that the more rings you have, the more likely your will be to crossdate
confidently and find all pertinent dates of ring formation of the answer,
or vice versa. The master chronology with which you can crossdate
your skeleton plot of the core is approximately six times longer that the
core series, and the true crossdated match of the sample falls somewhere
within the master chronology.
<P><A NAME="sensitivity_image"></A>
<DIV ALIGN="center">
<IMG SRC="http://tree.ltrr.arizona.edu/~martin/LTRR_images/mlk178fz.jpg" ALT="aternate to image">
</DIV>
<A NAME="sensitivity_text"></A>
<CENTER><H1>Sensitivity-fewest_sensitivity</H1></CENTER>
Tree growth (e.g., ring width) is described as "sensitive" when it exhibits
a high degree of annual variation with wide and narrow rings intermixed
through time, as illustrated on the left side of the figure above and which
is typical of many pine species growing in semi-arid environments (e.g.,
ponderosa pine of the North American Southwest). This results from
having a limiting factor, climate for example, that is highly variable
from year to year. When crossdating tree-ring specimens, dendrochronologists
prefer sensitive growth patterns because matching patterns of relatively
wide and narrows rings is easy when ample variation exists in ring width.
<P>Conversely, tree growth is described as "complacent" when it does not
exhibit a high degree of annual variation, i.e., rings are roughly the
same width for many years consecutively, as illustrated on the right side
of the figure above and which is typical of many tree species growing in
relatively mesic environments (e.g., giant Sequoia of the Sierra Nevada
of California). This results from not having a limiting factor (with
respect to ring width, in this case) that is highly variable from year
to year. It is more difficult to crossdate complacent tree-ring specimens
because matching patterns of relatively wide and narrows rings is hard
when there is not much variation in ring width.
<P>On the applet, the default sensitivity-fewest_sensitivity setting is very sensitive
(a value of 1 on the scroll bar). Try changing the setting all the
way to very complacent (a value of 10 on the scroll bar) and then restart
a new core to see the different levels of sensitivity-fewest_sensitivity in the
randomly generated virtual tree-ring sample. Show the master chronology
to also see how the time series of relative tree growth varies when you
change the sensitivity-fewest_sensitivity setting. If and when you try to
crossdate a complacent series, you should consider trying a longer series,
i.e., one with more rings, in order to improve your likelihood of success.
<P><A NAME="exampleapplication_image"></A>
<DIV ALIGN="center">
<IMG SRC="http://tree.ltrr.arizona.edu/~hal/a14.jpg" ALT="aternate to image">
</DIV>
<A NAME="exampleapplication_text"></A>
<CENTER><H1>Example Application of Crossdating</H1></CENTER>
By crossdating ring growth between trees, dendrochronologists can assign
the true calendar year of formation for every ring of each sample, and
this chronology information then allows for various other analyses of past
environmental and/or human events. In the example above, the living
tree (right side) has a known bark date--the present year--which may be
taken as the starting point for the chronology. After crossdating
samples from living trees, a dendrochronology will extend from present
back in time to some earlier year, say AD 1500.
<P>Then, dendrochronologists often find and sample wood from dead trees
(middle), either standing snags or fallen logs, that both lived for a long
time and died long ago. If the dead trees lived concurrently with
the living trees, then the outer ring-growth pattern of the dead trees
will match (crossdate with) that of the inner portions of the living trees.
Thus, the dendrochronology will be extended further back in time to an
even earlier year, say AD 1200.
<P>Lastly, archeologists often collect samples from wooden beams, uprights,
and other structural parts of dwellings that were constructed, lived in,
and abandoned long ago (left side). If the trees that provided the
structural parts lived concurrently with the dead trees, then the outer
ring-growth pattern of the structural samples will match (crossdate with)
that of the inner portions of the dead trees. Thus, the dendrochronology
will be extended further back in time to an even earlier year, say AD 800,
and the human behavioral events of the past can be reconstructed for further
archeological analysis.
<P>Without knowing the actual year dates of formations of all rings of
these samples, this application of dendrochronology would not exist.
With crossdating, however, this application is possible and, indeed, dendroarcheology
is a major subfield of dendrochronology. Likewise, with crossdating
to know the exact year of formation of tree rings we may study past wildland
fires (dendroecology), earthquakes (dendrogeomorphology), and climate changes
(dendroclimatology) as well as many other environmental processes.
<P><A NAME="exampleplot_image"></A>
<DIV ALIGN="center">
<IMG SRC="http://tree.ltrr.arizona.edu/~martin/LTRR_images/mlk178fz.jpg" ALT="aternate to image">
</DIV>
<A NAME="exampleplot_text"></A>
<CENTER><H1>Example Skeleton Plot and Pattern Matching</H1></CENTER>
To skeleton plot a sample onto a strip of graph paper, you simply make
marks according to the relative narrowness of each ring. The graph
marks range from no mark at all (not narrow) to a mark of ten graph lines
in length (the most narrow). A mark of only one graph line in length
would represent a ring that is only slightly narrow. Dendrochronologists
typically accentuate narrow rings when skeleton plotting, as illustrated
in the figure above. Note that ring #5 is quite narrow relative to
its neighboring rings of the sample. The mark on the corresponding
5th line of the strip of graph paper is 8 lines long. In comparison,
ring #2 is only slightly narrow and its associating graph mark is only
3 lines long. To make a normal mark on the graph paper of the applet,
simply put the cursor on the correct position (vertical line) and at the
height (horizontal line) you desire and then click the left mouse button.
<P>Occasionally a very wide ring occurs (e.g., ring #15 above), prompting
dendrochronologists to mark a "b" on the corresponding position (vertical
line) on the graph paper to indicate that wide ring. The applet allows
you to mark a "b" by selecting the wide option when drawing marks.
The master chronology has "b" marks, so skeleton plotting some wide rings
can be helpful for crossdating. Note also that ring #11 is merely
average in width, and no mark at all is made on the 11th position of the
graph strip. Average rings are simply not marked on skeleton plots.
For an idea of how to make marks on your skeleton plot, look at the master
chronology to see what values of ring growth merit a long mark versus no
mark at all versus a "b" mark. On the master, a value of 1.0 is average
and all values greater than 1.0 represent above-average growth while values
less than 1.0 represent below-average growth.
<P>Once you are done skeleton plotting your sample, show the master chronology
and switch the graphs to an appropriate size for your computer monitor.
To see more of the master chronology, you may change the magnification
setting to have smaller graphs, which may be helpful for obtaining a bigger
picture of the chronology. Then, move the master chronology left
or right by clicking and holding the left mouse button in the lower portion
of the chronology graph and moving the mouse. You goal now is to
find where the marks on your skeleton plot match those of the master in
mirror image. When you see a match, you can then determine the start
and end years of the sample as well as account for ring-growth anomalies
that might exist. If you have a missing ring, put a missing-ring
mark in between the adjacent vertical graph lines of your skeleton plot
(as with lines 16 and 17 above) and move your plot one position to the
right to account for the missed year. If you have a false intra-annual
band, put the false mark over the corresponding graph line of your skeleton
plot (as with line 19 above) and move your skeleton plot one position to
the left. Once you have determined the start and end year as well
as dates of all ring anomalies, check the answer button to confirm your
crossdating.
<P><A NAME="relative_image"></A>
<DIV ALIGN="center">
<IMG SRC="http://tree.ltrr.arizona.edu/~sheppard/rel2.gif" ALT="aternate to image">
</DIV>
<A NAME="relative_text"></A>
<CENTER><H1>Relative Scale of Skeleton Plots</H1></CENTER>
Although trees living within a homogeneous stand or forest usually exhibit
the same relative patterns of growth variation through time, they often
have absolute growth rates that differ substantially due to living in different
microsites. Because of this, it is often difficult to compare the
ring-growth variation of two or more specimens from the actual wood samples.
For example, sample A from above has an average ring width of 1.0 mm while
that of sample B is 2.0 mm and that of sample C is 3.0 mm. All three
samples have exactly the same pattern of variation across their 20-year
time spans, but it is impossible to align that pattern using the actual
wood samples because of their different growth rates. To overcome
this situation, dendrochronologists make skeleton plots, i.e., they represent
growth variation of samples onto separate strips of standard graph paper
in order to equalize the absolute scales of all specimens and thereby more
easily compare growth of two or more specimens. Note that the three
skeleton plots of above, representing their respective samples, are easy
to compare to one another and clearly show that the pattern of variation
of each sample is the same and is therefore is contemporaneous.
<P>On the applet, you are given a strip of virtual graph paper on which
you can make a skeleton plot of the ring-width variation of the series
of tree rings generated for you. The applet starts with default settings
of drawing (versus erasing) a normal mark (versus other marks for wide,
absent, or false rings). To make a mark on the graph paper, simply
put the cursor in the bottom part of the graph strip and click once with
the left mouse button. To erase that or any other mark, turn on the
eraser and click over the mark. Don't forget to turn on the drawer
to continue making marks. Note that you can move the graph strip
left or right by clicking and holding the left mouse button in the top
part of the graph and moving the mouse.
<P><A NAME="skeletonplot_text"></A>
To put scrollable, sizeable help comments on how to operate the applet?
<P><A NAME="otherways_image"></A>
<DIV ALIGN="center">
<IMG SRC="http://tree.ltrr.arizona.edu/~martin/LTRR_images/mlk178fz.jpg" ALT="aternate to image">
</DIV>
<A NAME="otherways_text"></A>
<CENTER><H1>Other Ways of Crossdating</H1></CENTER>
There are other ways of dendrochronological crossdating besides using skeleton
plots:
<P>European skeleton:
<P>Corridor analysis:
<P>Character listing:
<P>Running signs agreement:
<P>Quantitative checks:
<P>COFECHA
<P>CROS
<P><A NAME="feedback_image"></A>
<DIV ALIGN="center">
<IMG SRC="http://tree.ltrr.arizona.edu/~martin/LTRR_images/mlk178fz.jpg" ALT="aternate to image">
</DIV>
<A NAME="feedback_text"></A>
<CENTER><H1>Feedback Form</H1></CENTER>
After your playing with the skeleton plotting applet, we would like know these things:
<FORM METHOD="post" ACTION="/htbin/generic">
Major field of study or career:<BR>
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="major" VALUE="arts"> Arts
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="major" VALUE="physical_sci."> Physical Sci.
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="major" VALUE="natural_sci"> Natural Sci.
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="major" VALUE="engineering_tech"> Engineering-Tech.
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="major" VALUE="social_sci."> Social Sci.
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="major" VALUE="medicine"> Medicine
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="major" VALUE="law"> Law
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="major" VALUE="other"> Other
<P>Level of academic training:<BR>
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="academic" VALUE=""> pre high school
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="academic" VALUE=""> high school
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="academic" VALUE=""> college, lower division
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="academic" VALUE=""> college, upper division
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="academic" VALUE=""> college, post-graduate
<P>Level of awareness of dendrochronology:
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="dendro_exp" VALUE="1"> 1 (none)
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="dendro_exp" VALUE="2"> 2
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="dendro_exp" VALUE="3"> 3
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="dendro_exp" VALUE="4"> 4 (moderate)
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="dendro_exp" VALUE="5"> 5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="dendro_exp" VALUE="6"> 6
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="dendro_exp" VALUE="7"> 7 (lots)
<P>Level of dendrochronological crossdating experience:
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="crossdate_exp" VALUE="1"> 1 (none)
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="crossdate_exp" VALUE="2"> 2
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="crossdate_exp" VALUE="3"> 3
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="crossdate_exp" VALUE="4"> 4 (moderate)
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="crossdate_exp" VALUE="5"> 5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="crossdate_exp" VALUE="6"> 6
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="crossdate_exp" VALUE="7"> 7 (lots)
<P>Where did you first try this applet?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="first_time" VALUE="facilitated"> Classroom (facilitated learning)
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="first_time" VALUE="distance"> Home or office (distance learning)
<DL><DD>If in a classroom, did an instructor help or did you do it alone?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="facilitated" VALUE="instructed"> With an instructor
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="facilitated" VALUE="alone"> Alone
</DL>
Did you correctly determine the start and end dates of the core using the default settings?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="default_success" VALUE="yes"> yes
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="default_success" VALUE="no"> no
<DL><DD>If yes, how many tries did you need to succeed the first time?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="default_success_tries" VALUE="one"> 1
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="default_success_tries" VALUE="few"> 2-5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="default_success_tries" VALUE="lots"> 6+<BR>
If no, how many times did you try using the default settings?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="default_failure_tries" VALUE="one"> 1
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="default_failure_tries" VALUE="few"> 2-5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="default_failure_tries" VALUE="lots"> 6+
</DL>
Did you try a crossdating problem with only the missing-ring anomaly?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="try_missing_rings" VALUE="yes"> yes
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="try_missing_rings" VALUE="no"> no
<DL><DD> If yes, did you correctly determine the missing years?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="missing_rings_success" VALUE="yes"> yes
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="missing_rings_success" VALUE="no"> no
<DL><DD>If yes, how many times did you try with missing rings before succeeding?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="missing_success_tries" VALUE="one"> 1
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="missing_success_tries" VALUE="few"> 2-5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="missing_success_tries" VALUE="lots"> 6+<BR>
If no, how many times did you try with missing rings?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="missing_failure_tries" VALUE="one"> 1
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="missing_failure_tries" VALUE="few"> 2-5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="missing_failure_tries" VALUE="lots"> 6+
</DL></DL>
Did you try a crossdating problem with only the false-ring anomaly?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="try_false_rings" VALUE="yes"> yes
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="try_false_rings" VALUE="no"> no<BR>
<DL><DD> If yes, did you correctly determine the false ring pair?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="false_rings_success" VALUE="yes"> yes
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="false_rings_success" VALUE="no"> no
<DL><DD>If yes, how many times did you try with false rings before succeeding?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="false_success_tries" VALUE="one"> 1
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="false_success_tries" VALUE="few"> 2-5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="false_success_tries" VALUE="lots"> 6+<BR>
If no, how many times did you try with false rings?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="false_failure_tries" VALUE="one"> 1
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="false_failure_tries" VALUE="few"> 2-5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="false_failure_tries" VALUE="lots"> 6+
</DL></DL>
Did you try a crossdating problem with both missing and false rings?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="try_fewest_sensitivity_rings" VALUE="yes"> yes
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="try_fewest_sensitivity_rings" VALUE="no"> no<BR>
<DL><DD> If yes, did you correctly determine all missing years and false rings?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_rings_success" VALUE="yes"> yes
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_rings_success" VALUE="no"> no<BR>
<DL><DD>If yes, how many times did you try with missing and false rings before succeeding?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_success_tries" VALUE="one"> 1
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_success_tries" VALUE="few"> 2-5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_success_tries" VALUE="lots"> 6+<BR>
If no, how many times did you try with missing and false rings?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_failure_tries" VALUE="one"> 1
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_failure_tries" VALUE="few"> 2-5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_failure_tries" VALUE="lots"> 6+
</DL></DL>
Did you try a crossdating problem with a different sensitivity setting (other than the default of "1")?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="try_complacent_series" VALUE="yes"> yes
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="try_complacent_series" VALUE="no"> no<BR><BR>
<DL><DD> If yes, what was the highest sensitivity setting that you tried?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="2"> 2
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="3"> 3
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="4"> 4
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="5"> 5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="6"> 6
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="7"> 7
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="8"> 8
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="9"> 9
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="10"> 10
<DD> Did you correctly find all parts of the answer at that highest setting?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="complacent_series_success" VALUE="yes"> yes
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="complacent_series_success" VALUE="no"> no<BR>
<DL><DD>If yes, how many times did you try with at that sensitivity setting before succeeding?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_success_tries" VALUE="one"> 1
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_success_tries" VALUE="few"> 2-5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_success_tries" VALUE="lots"> 6+<BR>
If no, how many times did you try at that sensitivity setting?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_failure_tries" VALUE="one"> 1
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_failure_tries" VALUE="few"> 2-5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="complacency_failure_tries" VALUE="lots"> 6+
</DL></DL>
Did you try a crossdating problem with a different number of rings?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="try_different_number_rings" VALUE="yes"> yes
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="try_different_number_rings" VALUE="no"> no<BR>
<DL><DD> If yes, what was the fewest number of rings you tried (presumably less than 61)?<BR>
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_number_rings" VALUE="11"> 11
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_number_rings" VALUE="21"> 12-21
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_number_rings" VALUE="31"> 22-31
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_number_rings" VALUE="41"> 32-41
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_number_rings" VALUE="51"> 42-51
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_number_rings" VALUE="61"> 52-61<BR>
What setting of sensitivity did you try in this case?<BR>
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="1"> 1
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="2"> 2
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="3"> 3
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="4"> 4
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="5"> 5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="6"> 6
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="7"> 7
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="8"> 8
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="9"> 9
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="fewest_sensitivity_setting" VALUE="10"> 10<BR>
Did you correctly determine all parts of the answer?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="different_number_rings_success" VALUE="yes"> yes
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="different_number_rings_success" VALUE="no"> no
</DL>
Did you use this applet to teach crossdating in dendrochronology?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="teach" VALUE="yes"> yes
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="teach" VALUE="no"> no<BR>
If yes:
<DL><DD>How many students were in your class?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="number_of_students" VALUE=""> 1-5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="number_of_students" VALUE=""> 6-10
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="number_of_students" VALUE=""> 11-20
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="number_of_students" VALUE=""> 21-50
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="number_of_students" VALUE=""> 50+
<DD>How effective was the applet as a teaching tool?
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="teaching_effectiveness" VALUE="1"> 1 (not at all)
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="teaching_effectiveness" VALUE="2"> 2
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="teaching_effectiveness" VALUE="3"> 3
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="teaching_effectiveness" VALUE="4"> 4 (intermediate)
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="teaching_effectiveness" VALUE="5"> 5
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="teaching_effectiveness" VALUE="6"> 6
<INPUT TYPE="radio" NAME="teaching_effectiveness" VALUE="7"> 7 (highly)
</DL>
<P>Please enter general comments here:
<TEXTAREA NAME="general_comments" ROWS="10" COLS="80" WRAP="virtual">
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